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الجمهوريّه التونسيّه                              Republic of Tunis  

Flag of Tunis

Map of Tunis

Tunisia, republic of northern Africa, bounded on the north and east by the Mediterranean Sea, on the south by Libya, and on the west by Algeria. The total area is 164,418 sq km (63,482 sq mi).

Tunisia’s Mediterranean coast is indented by many harbors and inlets, notably the gulfs of Tunis, Hammamet, and Qābis. The Gulf of Gabès contains the islands of Jarbah (Djerba) and Qarqanah (Kerkennah). The total length of coastline is 1,150 km (713 mi).

Tunisia may be divided, from north to south, into four main topographic regions. In the north, low-lying spurs of the Maritime Atlas Mountains traverse the country in a southwestern to northeastern direction. Peaks range in elevation from about 610 to 1,520 m (about 2,000 to 5,000 ft). Fertile valleys and plains are interspersed among the mountains of this region. The country’s only major river, the Majardah, crosses the region from west to east, emptying into the Gulf of Tunis. To the south the mountains give way to a plateau that averages about 610 m (about 2,000 ft) in elevation. Farther south, the plateau descends gradually to a chain of low-lying salt lakes, known as shatts, or chotts, which extend east to west across the country. Several of these lakes lie below sea level. On the south the shatts adjoin the Sahara, which constitutes about 40 percent of Tunisia’s land area.

In general, a mild Mediterranean climate prevails in the north of Tunisia; toward the south the climate becomes progressively hotter and drier. In the north, temperatures average 9°C (48°F) in January and 26°C (78°F) in July. The northern regions have a rainy season that lasts from October to May. Average annual rainfall is about 610 mm (about 24 in) but may vary greatly from year to year. Annual rainfall decreases to the south and is only about 200 mm (about 8 in) in the Sahara.

The plant life of Tunisia, particularly that found in the coastal region, is similar to that of southern Europe. The fertile, well-watered regions of the north are characterized by flourishing vineyards and by dense forests of cork oak, pine, and juniper trees. Farther south, the semiarid conditions support a steppe vegetation dominated by wild grasses, notably esparto grass, and a wide variety of shrubs. In the arid regions of the extreme south, date palms flourish in oases. Among the wildlife found in the country are hyena, wild boar, jackal, gazelle, and hare. Several varieties of poisonous snakes, including cobras and horned vipers, are also present.

Petroleum is Tunisia’s principal mineral resource. Reserves exist both offshore and on land, particularly in the south, and important new deposits were discovered in the early 1980s. Other mineral resources include natural gas, phosphates, iron ore, lead, and zinc.

Water is scarce in Tunisia, and drought is common. Population growth has led to increased demand for farmland. As agricultural production has increased, so have marginal land use and overgrazing, resulting in extensive soil erosion and desertification. Only 3.6 percent (1995) of the country’s total land area is forested, and this figure is shrinking as the country experiences a 0.50 percent (1990-1996) annual rate of deforestation.

Tunisia does more to treat sewage than many of its neighbors, but untreated urban sewage is still a problem, contaminating water supplies and causing eutrophication of the country’s Mediterranean waters. In rural areas, only 52 percent (1990-1998) of the population has access to adequate sanitation. In addition, toxic wastes from industrial processes are not disposed of effectively, presenting human health risks.

Only 0.30 percent (1997) of the country’s land area is protected. Ichkeul National Park, in northern Tunisia, protects a lake and the surrounding wetlands that serve as a resting area for hundreds of thousands of migrating birds, including ducks, geese, and pink flamingos.

The government of Tunisia has ratified international environmental agreements pertaining to biodiversity, climate change, desertification, endangered species, environmental modification, hazardous wastes, marine dumping, ozone layer protection, ship pollution, and wetlands.

Throughout history, many peoples, including Romans, Vandals, black Africans, and Arabs, have invaded or settled in the region that is now Tunisia. Tunisians, however, are essentially of Berber stock, although fewer than 2 percent speak the Berber language. As a result of Arabization, Arabic has become the language of the Tunisian people, who have come to regard themselves as Arabs.

Tunisia has a population of 9,815,644 (2002 estimate), yielding an average population density of 60 persons per sq km (155 per sq mi). About three-quarters of the population lived in the coastal region. The arid central and southern parts make up 70 percent of the total land area, but contain less than 30 percent of the population.

The capital and largest city of Tunisia is the seaport of Tunis, with a population of 674,100 in 1995. Other important cities include Sfax (230,900); Sūsah, or Sousse (125,000); and Bizerte (98,900).

Arabic is the official language of Tunisia, but French is used widely, particularly by the educated. Islam is the state religion and is adhered to by 98 percent of the population; virtually all Muslims in Tunisia belong to the Sunni branch. There are small numbers of Roman Catholics, Jews, Greek Orthodox, and Protestants.

Education in Tunisia is free, and virtually all eligible children attend primary school. Instruction is conducted mainly in Arabic, although French is also used, especially at the college and university levels. In the 1998-1999 school year primary schools had a total enrollment of 1.4 million pupils, and secondary, technical, and vocational schools, 1.1 million. In 1998-1999 some 157,500 students were enrolled in institutions of higher education, primarily three divisions of the University of Tunis (founded in 1958).

Tunisia has three major libraries, all headquartered in Tunis. The National Library has a collection of more than 700,000 volumes. The Musée National du Bardo, founded in 1888 in Tunis, has collections of Punic, Greek, Roman, and Islamic art. Tunis also has a state-supported municipal theater, but much theater activity takes place at the International Cultural Center at Al Ḩammāmāt. The Carthage Festival, an international arts festival, is held annually at the site of the ancient city.

The Tunisian press includes 8 dailies with a combined daily circulation of 280,000 and more than three dozen other periodicals. Both radio and television broadcasting are under government operation. In 1997 the number of radio receivers per 1,000 inhabitants was 224, and the number of television sets per 1,000 was 100. The number of telephone mainlines per 1,000 in 1999 was 90.

The Tunisian economy is dominated by fossil fuel production, mining, manufacturing, and tourism. In 1999 the government’s budget showed $6 billion in revenue and $6.6 billion in spending. The gross domestic product (GDP), which is the total value of all goods and services produced in the country, was $19.5 billion in 2000.

Of the economically active Tunisian population, 22 percent work in agriculture and fishing, 34 percent in industry, and 43 percent in services. Unemployment and underemployment are chronic national problems. The major trade organization, the General Union of Tunisian Workers, has about 175,000 members in 23 affiliated unions.

Annual agricultural yields in Tunisia fluctuate because of the frequency of drought and the lack of extensive water resources for irrigation. The leading crops in the fertile plains of the north include cereal grains such as wheat and barley (1,095,000 metric tons in 2001); vegetables and melons (2.2 million metric tons); and fruits, most importantly grapes, dates from Saharan oases, and oranges from the Cape Bon Peninsula (929,505 metric tons). About half the productive land is used for grazing, and, because of drought, the livestock industry is also subject to fluctuations. In 2001 the country’s livestock included 6.6 million sheep, 1.5 million goats, 795,000 cattle, 231,000 camels, 56,200 horses, and 46 million poultry.

A growing fishing industry exists along the coast of Tunisia. In 1997 the catch was 89,027 metric tons. The catch typically includes sardines, pilchards, tuna, and whitefish.

Although not as rich in petroleum as its neighbors, Libya and Algeria, Tunisia does have several substantial deposits. Production of crude oil in 1999 totaled 30.7 million barrels. The country is also a major world producer of phosphates (8.3 million metric tons). Other mining products include natural gas (2 billion cubic meters/70 billion cubic feet), iron ore (98,000 metric tons), and zinc (41,247 metric tons). Salt also is produced in significant quantities.

The Tunisian government has encouraged the development of export-oriented industries. Major industries include a sugar refinery at Bājah (Béja), a petroleum refinery at Bizerte, a steel plant at Manzil Bū Ruqaybah (Menzel-Bourguiba), and phosphate-processing and cement-making plants. Other manufactures are sulfuric acid, textiles, forest products, and processed agricultural and fishing products.

In 1999 Tunisia’s generating facilities produced 9.2 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity. Almost all of the country’s electricity is generated in thermal plants.

Tunisia has a road network of 18,997 km (11,804 mi) connecting important commercial centers. The country is also served by 3,640 km (2,262 mi) of railroad track. Tunisia has four major ports—Tunis, Bizerte, Sūsah, and Sfax. A fifth port, AşŞukhayrah, specializes in petroleum bunkering. A modern port is also being constructed at Qābis. The country has five international airports, two of which serve Tunis.

The unit of currency is the dinar, subdivided into 1,000 millimes (1.37 dinar equals U.S.$1; 2000 average). Currency is issued by the Central Bank of Tunisia (founded 1958).

The annual foreign trade of Tunisia usually shows a deficit. In 2000 exports totaled $5.9 billion and imports totaled $8.6 billion. The principal exports include textiles and leather goods, machinery and transportation equipment, petroleum and related products, phosphates and fertilizers, and agricultural products. Other important exports include wine, citrus fruits, and iron and steel. Among the leading imports are machinery, petroleum products, iron and steel, electric machinery, and food. The principal purchasers of Tunisia’s exports are France, Italy, Germany, the United States, Belgium and Luxembourg (which constitute a single trading entity), Spain, The Netherlands, and Algeria; chief sources of imports are France, Italy, and Germany. In 1995 Tunisia signed a trade agreement with the European Union (EU) that calls for more trade and fewer trade barriers between the EU and Tunisia. The agreement is scheduled to be implemented gradually over 12 years.

Tourism is an important source of foreign exchange in Tunisia, and the government has done much to expand and improve the country’s tourist facilities. In 2000 some 5.1 million visitors spent $1,496 million in Tunisia. Among the country’s attractions are its fine beaches and its archaeological sites, including the site of the ancient city of Carthage.

According to the constitution of 1959 Tunisia is a free, independent, and sovereign republic.

National executive power in Tunisia is exercised by the president, who is head of state and commander in chief of the army, and who also appoints a council of ministers, headed by a prime minister, which is responsible to the president. The constitution specifies that the president is to be popularly elected to a five-year term; in 1975, however, the National Assembly proclaimed President Habib Bourguiba president for life. Bourguiba held office until his ouster in November 1987.

Legislative power in Tunisia is vested in the unicameral Chamber of Deputies, which comprises 182 members popularly elected to five-year terms. The Chamber of Deputies holds two sessions a year, each lasting not more than three months.

Religious tribunals in Tunisia have been abolished and their functions absorbed by the civil courts. The Court of Cassation, located in Tunis, has one criminal and three civil sections. At the next level are 3 courts of appeals—at Tunis, Sūsah, and Sfax—and below them 13 courts of the first instance. At the lowest level are cantonal justices in 51 local districts.

For administrative purposes, Tunisia is divided into 23 governorates, each headed by a governor who is appointed by the president.

The principal political party is the Democratic Constitutional Rally (RCD; formerly the Destour Socialist Party), a moderate left-wing organization. The party permeates all aspects of political, social, and economic life in Tunisia. Other parties include the Movement of Social Democrats, the Movement of Popular Unity, the Popular Unity Party, and the Tunisian Communist Party.

In 1997 Tunisia had 1 physician for every 1,428 inhabitants and 1 hospital bed for every 588 inhabitants. Free health care is available to a majority of the population. A system of social security, begun in 1950, provides maternity, health, and old-age benefits.

In 2001 the armed forces of Tunisia comprised an army of 27,000 persons, a navy of 4,500, and an air force of 3,500.

In the earliest known period of its history, the region now called Tunisia was part of the Carthaginian Empire (see Carthage). According to tradition, Phoenician traders founded the city of Carthage in 814 bc at a location slightly northeast of the site of modern Tunis. In subsequent centuries Carthage became the center of a mighty empire that dominated most of northern Africa and intermittently ruled the southern part of the Iberian Peninsula, Sardinia, and parts of Sicily. Beginning in 264 bc Carthage clashed with the expanding Roman Empire in a series of bloody struggles known as the Punic Wars. In the last of these, the Third Punic War (149-146 bc), Rome defeated the Carthaginians and completely destroyed their capital. From the 2nd century bc to the 5th century ad most of the region now constituting Tunisia was part of the Roman province called Africa.

During the 5th century the Teutonic tribe known as the Vandals moved south through the Iberian Peninsula, crossed the Mediterranean, and wrested the province from Roman control. After a century of Vandal rule, from about 430 to 534, the region was reconquered for Rome by the Byzantine general Belisarius.

The region was overrun by Arab adherents of Islam in the 7th century. The Arab conquerors ruled from the late 7th to the early 16th century. During that period they replaced the Roman-Christian culture with a Muslim way of life. During the Muslim era a succession of dynasties wielded power, notably the Aghlabites (800-909), the Fatimids (909-973), and the Zeirids (10th century). In the latter part of the 12th century the Normans, led by the Sicilian ruler Roger II, briefly occupied a number of important coastal points. The Arabs recovered the region later in the century, and the Arab Almohad (12th century) and Hafsite (1228-1574) dynasties succeeded to power.

Arab political supremacy came to an end in the early 15th century. During the period of Arab domination the region had come to be known as Tunis, or Tunisia, from its chief city. In 1534 the Mediterranean pirate Barbarossa II (Khayr ad-Din, 1483-1546), captured the city of Tunis. He was expelled by Spanish imperial forces in the following years. Spanish dominance in Tunisia was short-lived, however. In 1574 armies of the Ottoman Empire defeated the Spanish and assumed hegemony over Tunisia. Under the Ottoman Turks, Tunisia enjoyed a period of relative stability from 1574 to 1881. Imperial rule was effected through native administrators, who were known as deys of Tunis until 1705 and as beys thereafter. The first bey, al-Husayn ibn Ali (reigned 1705-1740), founded the Husaynid dynasty. Husaynid rule secured for Tunisia a limited degree of autonomy and a large measure of prosperity.

Piracy, long a major Tunisian enterprise, continued to flourish under Husaynid auspices. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries a number of maritime nations, among which were the American colonies, paid regular bribes to the Tunisian government as insurance against raids on their Mediterranean shipping. Between 1801 and 1805 and in 1815 the U.S. Navy curbed Mediterranean piracy by attacking Tunis and other corsair bases along the so-called Barbary Coast of northern Africa.

As a result of the loss of its revenues from piracy the Tunisian government was plunged deeply into debt. The financial crisis was made especially acute by the unrestrained personal extravagances of the beys and by the necessity for frequent, costly government reprisals against rebel uprisings. The chief creditors of Tunisia were France, Italy, and the United Kingdom, all of which had imperialistic ambitions in northern Africa. In 1834 France annexed Algeria. At the Congress of Berlin in 1878, France agreed to abandon any claim to the Mediterranean island of Cyprus in return for a similar assurance by Britain in regard to Tunisia. A French army entered Tunisia from Algeria in 1881, ostensibly to subdue unruly tribesmen. In a series of sharp conflicts the French crushed native Tunisian opposition. On May 12, 1881, the reigning bey signed the Treaty of Kasser Said, known also as the Bardo Treaty, which acknowledged Tunisia to be a French protectorate. The two countries signed the supplemental Convention of Marsa in 1883.

French rule in Tunisia brought many important social and political changes. After 1884 a French resident general governed the country, although the bey was the nominal ruler. A sizable group of French settlers colonized the northern coastal region, filled administrative posts, and operated business enterprises. These settlers exerted a strong Westernizing influence.

During the early 1900s the widespread diffusion in Tunisia of European democratic ideals produced vigorous independence movements known collectively as the Young Tunisians. For several decades French authorities successfully suppressed the fledgling patriotic movements. In 1920, however, various nationalist groups united and formed the Destour (Constitutional) Party, which advocated extensive democratic reforms. The Destour movement was disbanded in 1925, but it was revived during the economic depression of the 1930s. In 1934 the so-called Neo-Destour, or New Constitutional, Party was organized by the Tunisian patriot and statesman Habib Bourguiba. In contrast to the more moderate Destour Party, which looked for support only in Tunisia, the Neo-Destour Party sought and received aid from extreme leftist or nationalist groups in France, Morocco, and Algeria. The Destour and Neo-Destour parties were forced by the government to dissolve in 1938.

The French authorities in Tunisia cooperated fully with the Vichy government, which ruled in France after that country capitulated to Germany on June 22, 1940, during World War II. Tunisia was important in military operations. In November 1942, amphibious Allied forces landed in Algeria and Morocco. Germany poured troops and tanks into the northern regions of nearby Tunisia to resist the Allied advance. After several months of fighting the Allied forces pinned the German forces against the sea on the Cape Bon Peninsula, and on May 12, 1943, the Germans capitulated. The surrender marked the final defeat of the Axis powers in northern Africa. On May 15 the Allies transferred control of Tunisia to the Free French. The French authorities immediately arrested hundreds of alleged Fascist sympathizers and deposed the reigning bey as a collaborator. These actions provoked deep resentment among the Tunisian people and prepared the way for the postwar renewal of nationalist agitation.

In 1945 France forced Bourguiba to seek refuge in Cairo. In the following year France granted Tunisia status as a semiautonomous associated state of the French Union. Further steps toward autonomy came in August 1947, when the French resident general formed a ministry composed chiefly of Tunisians; the French, however, retained the preponderance of political power. In September 1949, Bourguiba returned from exile and resumed his campaign for Tunisian independence. France, responding to the ensuing upsurge of nationalist sentiment, in 1951 appointed more Tunisians to ministerial posts and in the civil service. The following year the native Tunisian ministers attempted to air their grievances against the French before the United Nations Security Council, but they were prevented from doing so by a ruling that the dispute involved a domestic rather than an international question and hence did not fall under UN jurisdiction. Meanwhile, riots and political demonstrations occurred continually, especially in the northern region, rendering the French position in Tunisia increasingly untenable. The disorders continued unabated through the first half of 1954, during which time the French made, to no avail, repeated offers of limited reforms.

Anti-French disorders became increasingly violent late in July 1954. On July 31 the French premier Pierre Mendès-France arrived in Tunisia on a mission of conciliation. Mendès-France promised the protectorate full internal autonomy under a government composed of Tunisians. This statement proved acceptable to nationalist leaders, notably Bourguiba, and rioting came to a halt. Lengthy negotiations followed, and on June 3, 1955, the Tunisian premier Tahar ben Ammar and the French premier Edgar Faure signed a series of conventions and protocols that greatly increased the extent of Tunisian self-rule. France retained control of Tunisian foreign policy and defense, however. On September 17 the first all-Tunisian government in 74 years was installed in Tunis. Many nationalists actively opposed the new regime and pressed for an even greater measure of independence from France. Further French concessions were embodied in a historic protocol signed in Paris on March 20, 1956. The agreement in effect abrogated the Bardo Treaty of 1881 and recognized Tunisia as a completely sovereign, constitutional monarchy under the bey of Tunis. The first national legislative elections in Tunisian history, which took place on March 25, resulted in a decisive victory for the Neo-Destour Party. On April 8, Bourguiba was elected president of the first Tunisian National Assembly; on April 11, he was named premier. The assembly adopted a constitution transferring to the Tunisian people the legislative powers hitherto exercised by the bey. On November 12, 1956, Tunisia was admitted to the United Nations (UN).

The political strength of the Neo-Destour Party was demonstrated again when the party polled about 90 percent of the vote in various municipal elections on May 5, 1957. Women voted in those elections for the first time.

On July 25, 1957, the National Assembly overthrew the last vestiges of the monarchy by deposing the bey, proclaiming Tunisia a republic, and electing Bourguiba president. On August 5, all beylical properties and funds were confiscated by the republic and applied to a debt of $3,840,000 owed by the bey to the state. Widespread dismissals of French civil servants were carried out in the months following. As a result, about a third of the French residents of Tunisia, fearing further anti-French actions, fled the country, taking considerable amounts of capital and diminishing sharply the available reserves of technological skills.

Relations with France deteriorated in the late summer and autumn of 1957 as a result of clashes between French and Tunisian troops along the Tunisian-Algerian border. The clashes occurred when French troops, pursuing Algerian rebels, allegedly crossed the border into Tunisia.

In the early months of 1958 the crisis in foreign relations was exacerbated still further. On February 8, French military planes flew across the Algerian border and bombed the Tunisian village of Sakiet-Sidi-Youssef (now Saqiyat Sidi Yusuf), killing 68 Tunisians and wounding 100. French government representatives announced later the same day that the raid had been conducted in retaliation for the machine-gunning of French planes flying over the area on February 7.

Tunisia became a member state of the Arab League on October 1. On October 15, however, Tunisia ended its diplomatic relations with Egypt (then called the United Arab Republic). In November Tunisia resigned from the league.

France and Tunisia, on April 15, 1959, signed an agreement continuing French technical assistance. In 1960, Tunisia agreed to make part payment for land confiscated from French nationals; France would pay the balance. A new constitution was promulgated on June 1, 1959. On November 8, the first elections under the constitution were held. Unopposed, Bourguiba was reelected president, and the Neo-Destour Party won all seats in the National Assembly.

Following French rejection of a Tunisian note demanding the immediate evacuation of the naval base at Bizerte, Tunisian troops on July 19, 1961, began a siege of the base. In the next two days French forces broke the blockade and surrounded the entire city, taking a toll of 1,300 Tunisian lives. Both sides accepted a UN Security Council resolution of July 22 calling for a cease-fire. The UN General Assembly, in addition, on August 25 called on France to quit Bizerte altogether. Shortly thereafter both sides withdrew to the positions occupied before the fighting. After prolonged discussions between France and Tunisia, beginning in 1962, France completely withdrew from Bizerte in October 1963.

During 1963 and 1964 Tunisia moved toward closer economic and political cooperation in northern Africa. The border dispute with Algeria was settled, and schemes of technical cooperation were drawn up. Tunisian relations with Morocco also improved. During 1965-1966 Tunisia supported the establishment of the Maghreb Permanent Consultative Committee to work for greater North African regional cooperation.

Meanwhile, during 1963-1964, Tunisia had moved to strengthen ties with the Arab East, especially Egypt. In May 1964 the National Assembly enacted the expropriation of all foreign-owned lands, which mainly affected about 300,000 hectares (750,000 acres) belonging to French families. France’s reaction was to cancel all financial assistance to Tunisia, leaving the country in serious economic crisis.

One implication of the nationalization of land was the beginnings of a greater emphasis toward socialist collectivism. During the elections of November 1964, renewed emphasis was placed on “Tunisian Socialism,” and the Neo-Destour Party changed its name to Parti Socialiste Destourien. In that election President Bourguiba, the sole candidate, won by 96 percent of the votes; the Destour Party won all 90 of the National Assembly seats. In April 1965, Bourguiba’s newly forged ties with the Arab East were shattered when he unexpectedly proposed a negotiated settlement between the Arab states and Israel on the basis of the 1947 UN resolution. This was rejected by both Israel and most Arab states led by Egypt. Differences between Tunisia and other Arab states were further exacerbated when relations with Egypt were severed, and Tunisia began to boycott Arab League meetings.

In 1966 a rapprochement was achieved between Tunisia and Saudi Arabia, but relations with Egypt further deteriorated. In the Yemeni war Tunisia supported Saudi Arabia.

When the Arab-Israeli diplomatic confrontation intensified in April-May 1967, Tunisia gave full support to the Arab cause, and diplomatic relations with Egypt were restored.

Bourguiba was reelected to a third term in November 1969. In December the National Assembly approved a constitutional amendment providing for a premier, to be appointed by the president, who would assume the presidency in case of death or disability. This was expected to ensure a continuation of the moderate domestic and foreign policies laid down by Bourguiba. In March 1975, he was named president for life “in recognition of services rendered.”

In the early 1970s Tunisia pursued peaceful economic development, particularly of its petroleum resources. Relations with France and China improved, but Bourguiba expressed his distrust of U.S. and Soviet intentions in the Middle East. In 1982 Tunisia gave refuge to Palestine Liberation Organization leader Yasir Arafat and several hundred of his followers who had been forced out of Lebanon. Domestic rioting early in 1984 forced Bourguiba to rescind price increases on basic foodstuffs. Relations with Libya were severed in 1985 after Libya expelled some 30,000 Tunisian workers. Later in the year an Israeli air raid demolished the headquarters of the PLO near Tunis. In November 1987 Prime Minister Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali assumed the presidency after the president was declared senile. While retaining the secret police, Ben Ali freed political prisoners, legalized most opposition parties, and eased restrictions on the press. Although several parties contested the April 1989 elections (Tunisia’s first free elections since 1956), his Democratic Constitutional Rally Party won all 141 seats in parliament, and Ben Ali was elected to the presidency unopposed. In the early 1990s he cracked down on Muslim fundamentalists. In 1994 and 1999 Ben Ali was again reelected to the presidency.

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